Document found in 17th century trash heap confirms existence of legendary Nubian king

The document, which reports an administrative order, confirms the existence of King Qashqash, of whom there were only oral memories.

A small fragment of Arabic writing discovered in a pile of rubbish inside the citadel of ancient Dongola provided the first contemporary archaeological evidence of the existence of King Qashqasha semi-legendary Nubian ruler long known only from later literary traditions.

The discovery, reported in a published in the journal Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, transforms Qashqash from a figure of oral memory into a historically verifiable monarch. The document, cataloged as Dongola inv. 1990, “From King Qashqash” was issued explicitly and addressed to a subordinate named Khiḍr.

For generations, the Qashqash appeared primarily in the 19th-century biographical compilation Kitāb al-Ṭabaqāt, where it was described as a ancestor of influential Islamic figures in the Dongola region. Until now, however, no document from his own time had confirmed that he ruled.

The fragment was discovered in Building A. 1, inside the citadel of ancient Dongolaformer capital of the Christian Kingdom of Makuria. The structure is locally associated with the residence of the mekk, or minor king. Excavations carried out as part of the UMMA project revealed that the building stood out for its size and richness, with the discovery of silk and fine cotton fabrics, leather footwear or a gold ring strongly suggesting an elite occupation.

Although the document was found in a layer of rubbish, its context helped establish a time period. Ottoman silver coins discovered nearby date from the beginning of the 17th century and radiocarbon analysis indicates that the deposit was discarded no later than the 18th century. Internal references suggest that Qashqash likely ruled in the late 16th or early 17th century, making him one of the first securely substantiated post-medieval rulers of Dongola, says the .

Instead of reporting military feats, the order deals with day-to-day administration. The text instructs Khiḍr to collect cloth, hand over a sheep and its offspring, and transfer cotton cloth or a headdress to another individual. The tone is administrative, portraying a ruler involved in economic management and networks of reciprocal exchange, central elements of pre-colonial Sudanese politics.

Linguistically, the text reveals an era of transition. Although written in Arabic, it contains grammatical irregularities and colloquial spellings, suggesting that Arabic had become the official language but was still influenced by Nubian linguistic traditions.